Modern History

The estimated number of Aboriginal people living in Australia before colonization varies, but it is generally believed to be between 300,000 and 1,000,000. These estimates are based on various sources, including early colonial records, anthropological research, and studies of the carrying capacity of the land.

Australian Bureau of Statistics:
https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/7d12b0f6763c78caca257061001cc588/8dc45512042c8c00ca2569de002139be!OpenDocument

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australia is made up of many different and distinct groups, each with their own culture, customs, language and laws.

The Australian Institute for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies created a map in 1996 as part of the Encyclopaedia of Aboriginal Australia project and attempts to show language, social or nation groups based on published sources available up to 1994.

AIATSIS Map:
https://aiatsis.gov.au/explore/map-indigenous-australia

The Aboriginal population in Australia experienced a dramatic decline post-colonization. It is estimated that the population decreased by approximately 80-90% due to the impacts of disease, violence, dispossession, and disruption of their way of life brought by European settlers. Smallpox, influenza, and other diseases to which Aboriginal people had no immunity were particularly devastating. This significant reduction in population had profound effects on Aboriginal communities and cultures across Australia.

Further Reading:
https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/Indigenous-and-European-Contact-in-Australia/631556

The introduction of smallpox to Australia, which resulted in the catastrophic decline of Aboriginal populations, is a subject of significant debate. Theories on how it initially spread include deliberate introduction by British settlers as a form of biological warfare as well as accidental introduction through infected individuals or contaminated items.

Without previous exposure to the smallpox virus, Aboriginal people had no resistance, and up to 70 per cent of the population were killed by the disease.

National Museum:
https://www.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/resources/smallpox-epidemic

From the moment the British invaded Australia in 1788 they encountered active resistance from the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander owners and custodians of the lands. In the frontier wars which continued into the 1920s frontier massacres were a defining strategy to contain and eradicate that resistance. As a result, thousands of Aboriginal men, women and children were killed.

This following website, funded by the Australian Research Council, presents a map, timelines, and information about frontier massacres in Australia between 1788 and 1930.

Map: https://c21ch.newcastle.edu.au/colonialmassacres/map.php

The founding of South Australia in 1836 was marked by the issuance of the Letters Patent, which included a clause recognizing the land rights of Aboriginal inhabitants. This clause guaranteed that Aboriginal people could occupy and enjoy their lands and that their lands would not be taken without their consent.

Despite these assurances, the promise of respecting Aboriginal land rights was largely ignored. Colonizers rapidly bought, sold, and were granted land without the consent of the Aboriginal people. This led to widespread dispossession, disrupting the cultural practices, social structures, and livelihoods of the Kaurna people and other Aboriginal groups, highlighting a stark contrast between the legal promises made and the realities of colonization.

Museum of Australia Democracy:
https://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item-did-2.html

The Aboriginal Protection Act of 1911 was enacted in South Australia to exert control over the lives of Aboriginal people. This legislation granted the Chief Protector of Aborigines extensive powers to manage their movement, employment, and personal affairs.

Framed as a protective measure to shield Aboriginal people from exploitation, the Act was driven by assimilation policies and aimed to integrate Aboriginal people into white society and eradicate their cultural practices.

National Library of Australia:
https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-53890954/view?partId=nla.obj-53898604#page/n0/mode/1up

The Immigration Restriction Act of 1901, known as the White Australia Policy, aimed to preserve the predominance of white, British-descended people in Australia by restricting non-European immigration.

Driven by beliefs in racial superiority, economic protectionism, and social cohesion, the policy significantly shaped Australia's demographics to be predominantly white for several decades. This policy not only marginalized non-white communities but also exacerbated the exclusion and marginalization of Aboriginal people, further entrenching racial discrimination and social inequalities.

Economically the act ultimately resulted in labor shortages, increasing labor costs and reducing productivity. By restricting the flow of skilled and unskilled labor and limiting trade relationships with rapidly growing Asian economies, Australia's economic potential and growth was stifled for decades.

The White Australia Policy remained in effect until it was officially dismantled in the mid-20th century, culminating in the Racial Discrimination Act of 1975, which made racial discrimination illegal.

National Archives of Australia:
https://www.naa.gov.au/explore-collection/immigration-and-citizenship/immigration-restriction-act-1901#:~:text=The%20Immigration%20Restriction%20Act%20was,help%20keep%20Australia%20/'British'

Exemption certificates, often referred to as "dog tags" by Aboriginal people, were introduced as part of assimilation policies in Australia. These certificates were issued to Aboriginal individuals who were deemed to have adopted a European way of life and were meant to exempt them from the restrictive provisions of the Aboriginal Protection Acts.

Individuals with certificates were monitored to ensure compliance, with officials conducting checks and sometimes employing individuals to report on the behavior of certificate holders. This surveillance aimed to ensure they maintained the European standards of behavior expected by authorities, which often led to loss of cultural identity and community ties.​

Further Reading:
https://aiatsis.gov.au/explore/exemption-high-price-freedom
https://aboriginalexemption.com.au/

Stolen Wages:
https://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/economy/stolen-wages/stolen-wages
https://www5.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/UTSLRS/2013/14.pdf

The exact number of children taken during the Stolen Generations remains unknown, with estimates ranging from 20,000 to 100,000.

The discrepancy in numbers reflects the challenges in accurately counting all affected individuals due to incomplete records and the covert nature of many of the removals.

Some sources, including the 1997 "Bringing Them Home" report, suggest that the number could be as high as 100,000, while others estimate the number may be closer to 20,000. The absence of accurate reporting reflects the profound lack of care and disregard for the lives and well-being of Aboriginal families during this tragic process.

The systematic process of removal was intended to assimilate Aboriginal children into white society. The removals caused immense trauma, disrupting families and communities, and resulting in lasting psychological, social, and cultural harm. The effects of this trauma continue to impact Aboriginal communities today.

Further Reading:
https://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/politics/stolen-generations/abuse-of-stolen-children

The Australian referendum of 1967 was a landmark event in which the Australian public voted to amend the constitution to improve the rights of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people.

90.77% of voters supported the changes, making it the most overwhelmingly endorsed referendum in Australian history.

An important aspect of the 1967 referendum was the absence of a formal "no" campaign. There was widespread bipartisan support for the changes, and the general public, along with political leaders, advocated for a "yes" vote to address the discriminatory provisions in the constitution and promote equality for Aboriginal Australians​.

Further Reading: https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/FlagPost/2017/May/The_1967_Referendum